Rujukan Gangguan kurang daya tumpuan dan hiperaktif

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  132. 1 2 3 Malenka RC, Nestler EJ, Hyman SE (2009). "Chapter 6: Widely Projecting Systems: Monoamines, Acetylcholine, and Orexin". Dalam Sydor A, Brown RY (para penyunting). Molecular Neuropharmacology: A Foundation for Clinical Neuroscience (ed. 2nd). New York: McGraw-Hill Medical. halaman 148, 154–157. ISBN 978-0-07-148127-4. DA has multiple actions in the prefrontal cortex. It promotes the "cognitive control" of behavior: the selection and successful monitoring of behavior to facilitate attainment of chosen goals. Aspects of cognitive control in which DA plays a role include working memory, the ability to hold information "on line" in order to guide actions, suppression of prepotent behaviors that compete with goal-directed actions, and control of attention and thus the ability to overcome distractions. Cognitive control is impaired in several disorders, including attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. ... Noradrenergic projections from the LC thus interact with dopaminergic projections from the VTA to regulate cognitive control. ... it has not been shown that 5HT makes a therapeutic contribution to treatment of ADHD.

    NOTE: DA: dopamine, LC: locus coeruleus, VTA: ventral tegmental area, 5HT: serotonin (5-hydroxytryptamine)
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  198. ↑ Biederman, Joseph (2003). "New-Generation Long-Acting Stimulants for the Treatment of Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder". Medscape. Diarkib daripada yang asal pada 7 December 2003. Dicapai pada 19 June 2016. As most treatment guidelines and prescribing information for stimulant medications relate to experience in school-aged children, prescribed doses for older patients are lacking. Emerging evidence for both methylphenidate and Adderall indicate that when weight-corrected daily doses, equipotent with those used in the treatment of younger patients, are used to treat adults with ADHD, these patients show a very robust clinical response consistent with that observed in pediatric studies. These data suggest that older patients may require a more aggressive approach in terms of dosing, based on the same target dosage ranges that have already been established – for methylphenidate, 1–1.5–2 mg/kg/day, and for D,L-amphetamine, 0.5–0.75–1 mg/kg/day....
    In particular, adolescents and adults are vulnerable to underdosing, and are thus at potential risk of failing to receive adequate dosage levels. As with all therapeutic agents, the efficacy and safety of stimulant medications should always guide prescribing behavior: careful dosage titration of the selected stimulant product should help to ensure that each patient with ADHD receives an adequate dose, so that the clinical benefits of therapy can be fully attained. Parameter |name-list-style= yang tidak diketahui diendahkan (bantuan)
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    About 5–15% of the users who develop an amphetamine psychosis fail to recover completely (Hofmann 1983) ...
    Findings from one trial indicate use of antipsychotic medications effectively resolves symptoms of acute amphetamine psychosis.
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  206. ↑ Malenka RC, Nestler EJ, Hyman SE (2009). Sydor A, Brown RY (para penyunting). Molecular Neuropharmacology: A Foundation for Clinical Neuroscience (ed. 2nd). New York: McGraw-Hill Medical. halaman 323, 368. ISBN 978-0-07-148127-4. supervised use of stimulants at therapeutic doses may decrease risk of experimentation with drugs to self-medicate symptoms. Second, untreated ADHD may lead to school failure, peer rejection, and subsequent association with deviant peer groups that encourage drug misuse. ... amphetamines and methylphenidate are used in low doses to treat attention deficit hyperactivity disorder and in higher doses to treat narcolepsy (Chapter 12). Despite their clinical uses, these drugs are strongly reinforcing, and their long-term use at high doses is linked with potential addiction
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  212. ↑ "Zinc in attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder". Journal of Child and Adolescent Psychopharmacology. 15 (4): 619–27. August 2005. doi:10.1089/cap.2005.15.619. PMID 16190793. |hdl-access= memerlukan |hdl= (bantuan)
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  214. ↑ "SPECT and PET of the dopamine transporter in attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder". Expert Review of Neurotherapeutics. 8 (4): 611–25. April 2008. doi:10.1586/14737175.8.4.611. PMID 18416663. Zinc binds at ... extracellular sites of the DAT [103], serving as a DAT inhibitor. In this context, controlled double-blind studies in children are of interest, which showed positive effects of zinc [supplementation] on symptoms of ADHD [105,106]. It should be stated that at this time [supplementation] with zinc is not integrated in any ADHD treatment algorithm.
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